UNIT 4 seminar Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

UNIT 4 seminar - Research Paper Example Process evaluation comprises of assessment activities integrated into the implementation of the program. The purpose of the process evaluation is to determine the potential success or failure of a certain program. It assesses the implementation of a given program (Royse, Thyer, & Padgett, 2010). It may require a detailed description of the program, constant monitoring as well as quality assurance check. On the other hand, outcome evaluation is carried out after the conclusion of the implementation program in a bid to determine whether the program really works. Moreover, outcome evaluation assesses the efficiency of the program on the target population. After a successful search for formative evaluation in the Kaplan Library, 8,648 appeared. This number was shocking because the scholarly articles yielded were too many. With such a high number of results, only a limited number of them are relevant. After the search of process evaluation in the same library, 1,182,652 results appeared (Smith, 2006). When outcome evaluation was searched on the Kaplan Library, the search yielded only 16 results. This number was also shocking because it showed that limited researches on this aspect has been done. When formulating objectives, experts have highlighted that they should be measurable and specific. Measurable objectives are subject to successful assessment or evaluation yielding results that determine whether they are effective (Kellaghan, Madaus, & Stufflebeam, 2000). On the other hand, specificity is critical in formulating objectives as it minimizes chances of confusing ideas. Evidently, the three types of evaluation are critical in the adoption of any program as they reflect the potential of any program in addressing the needs of the target

Need a management theory and explain it Research Paper

Need a management theory and explain it - Research Paper Example In this paper communication has been discussed within the context of helix and structuration theories. Globalization has exerted more pressures to operate efficiently and effectively and has pushed organizations to employ skillful means to enhance efficient organizational functions. The effectiveness of an organization’s employee is grounded on organizational culture, effective communication and solid leadership at the workplace. From the case study provided, it is evident that Ford clearly lacks these important elements that can motivate employees and hence increase productivity. It is obvious from the excerpt that there is a complete lack of leadership from the supervisors employing old school tactics to manage new age problems. Culture, communication and leadership are critical elements of an effective homogenous work force that is bent of increasing productivity. These three elements are intricately linked and must be continually sought by the dynamic and high achieving organisation out to make a competitive edge in business. the role of the leader with an organizational s et up is to steer the firm towards realization of a common objective goal. In the case study, Bob through application of this principles management to successfully meet and surpass his quotas daily, much to the chagrin of other supervisors. Communication enjoys a crucial place within organizations and its importance is not in doubt; in fact it is the lifeblood of any organisation that seeks to gel and improve as a unit. The success of an organization can be partly attributed to the degree of communication within an organization as it serves as an essential link for any formal organization, thereby linking the mutual objectives that people within the familiar setting seeks to achieve. In the case provided, communication between the management and the hourly employees has completely broken down and their mode lacks the essential elements that define

Car Accidents: Causes, Statistics and Prevention

Car Accidents: Causes, Statistics and Prevention Introduction Cars today play a vital role in our lives. They bring ease and satisfaction to our lives, because these vehicles help us transport from one place to another without exerting so much effort on it. Wherever you desire to go cars are the fast and easiest solution for your problems. Plus it’s mostly used in our daily activities, transportation from home to school safely, going on road trips; since you will not be able to walk carrying your luggage easily, etcetera†¦ In addition, it comes in handy during emergencies. Moreover, cars are helpful when it comes to safety, but accidents sometimes occur. Scientists and mechanics are attempting to overcome accidents by trying to figure out the faults behind the car. As explained in â€Å"Importance of Cars† article, submitted on June 25th, 2012. Reasons behind car accidents There are plenty of reasons behind car accidents: The speed of the car: For example, in Ireland it is one of the biggest factors that contribute to road deaths. Excessive and inappropriate speed causes more than 40% of deadly collisions. Excessive speed is when you cross the speed limit. The table below explains how a small difference in the speed of the car could be the difference between the life and the death of a defenseless pedestrian. The figure below sums up the stopping distance of the car in wet conditions. While the other figure explains the stopping distance of the car in normal conditions. â€Å"The pictures above are provided by Holroyd City Council Australia.† Driving in Fog: Fog can be defined with â€Å"thick cloud of tiny drops of water in the air† according to Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary. It makes driving perilous in these conditions, since it reduces visibility to around 400 metres. How fog affects vision First of all, the ones vision of speed is twisted. He might think that a vehicle is driving slower than it actually is, as a result to the lowered distinction. Furthermore, as this person will not be able to judge his own speed by taking a look at his surrounding, since he is enclosed by a foggy atmosphere. Secondly, distance may be underestimated. Since people distinguish between far and nearby vehicles based on whether they are blurry or not. As a distant object or vehicle might appear blurry, and the driver’s mind will interpret that the object is actually far. Therefore accidents are more likely to take place. Distraction: If a person diverts his attention away from the road it can cause an accident. Whether that person is adjusting the stereo, using his cell –phone, or even a distraction outside on the streets, it all might happen in a split of a second. As explained in the picture above, using a mobile phone while driving will reduce the driver’s reaction time as slow as a 70 year old. Driving under influence: Driving under the influence of alcohol leads to accidents, because it’s like a tranquillizer and a powerful depressant drug, so it slows down brain functions. The brains ability of processing information is affected by alcohol. As it diminishes consciousness and sight A drunk driver would find it hard to: â€Å"judge the speed of your vehicle; Judge the distance between your car and other cars; Notice traffic lights, pedestrians and other hazards; Concentrate on the task of driving; Keep your balance, especially if you are riding a motorcycle; Stay awake when you are driving; and react appropriately to things going on around you, particularly if an unexpected hazard should suddenly appear.† As reported by the Department of Transport. Furthermore, a person may take more risks than usual, and alcohol would slow down their nervous system, and some people may not react at all. Here are some statistics: â€Å"Every 53 minutes in America, someone is killed in a drunk driving crash. That equates to 27 people every day.† â€Å"211 children were killed in drunk driving crashes in 2010. Of those 211 children, 62% were riding in the car with the impaired driver.† How Physics Improves Car Safety: Seatbelts: According to Sir Isaac Newton in his 1st law which is â€Å"if the resultant force is zero, then the object will If stationary, remain stationary. If moving, keep moving at a steady speed in a straight line.† During the accident, forced are exerted on the car. But not directly to the passenger, since he will keep moving even when the car comes to a stop. They might even hit the steering wheel or go out through the window. The speed of the car before it crashes is sharply equal to the speed of the passenger when it hits anything inside the car. That’s why seatbelts are made; to slow the driver down. Again, Newton’s 2nd law states that: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to its mass. This law is represented by the equation below. When the accident occurs the seatbelt diminishes the stopping distance. As explained in the diagram that’s on the left. The total force exerted on the passenger’s body equals the mass of the vehicle times the vehicle’s acceleration. When seatbelts are used in the correct way, they lessen the external force of the accident and allocate the initial inertia of the collision across the body. Throughout crashes, seatbelts reduce a lot of force sensed by the passenger and lessen the severity of that person’s injury. Airbags: When the person’s head jolts forward during the vehicle crash, it will be protected by the airbags that inflate whenever the car crashes from certain aspects. So basically, its purpose is to help reduce the passenger’s speed when they collide with the interior vehicle without getting injured. Each and every object in a car has mass, speed and direction (velocity). If a person is not secured inside a car he will continue moving in the same direction (forward, or depending on the crash itself), with the same speed as the car’s, and when the car comes to a stop, until a force is exerted on that person. This passenger has momentum. So in order to stop it, a force has to act on them. Such as airbags that provide impulse. The more time the force has to act on the passenger to slow them down, the less damage caused to the passenger. The airbag has a certain amount of time to inflate when the car crashes with another object, and then the passenger hits the steering wheel. After the collision occurs in 15-20 milliseconds, the crash sensors will decide whether to inflate or ot to inflate the airbag (6-10km/h). If the sensors decide to puff up the airbag it Is about 25 milliseconds after the collision. The airbag takes about 20 milliseconds to inflate, so the person can crash onto it. The person has made contact with the airbag around 60 milliseconds, and then it begins to deflate. The deflation process take about 35-40 milliseconds. Today, airbags can be found in different places in the vehicle. Such as the head airbags, steering wheel airbag, passenger airbag, and side airbags, Even though airbags are found, the passenger still has to buckle his or her seatbelt, because it will decrease his injury. Rule and Regulations In Canada Fog. (n.d.).The American Heritage ® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Retrieved May 12, 2014, from Dictionary.com website:http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fog http://www.roadsafetymayo.ie/CausesofAccidents/ http://www.roadsafetymayo.ie/media/Media,4515,en.pdf http://boltsaction.com/the-importance-of-cars-in-our-lives/ http://kimenglish9.wordpress.com/2010/12/09/car-accidents/ http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/211.web.stuff/sill/ http://www.who.int/world-health-day/previous/2004/en/traffic_facts_en.pdf http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1830396?uid=3738872uid=2uid=4sid=21104009116417 http://www.roadsafetymayo.ie/CausesofAccidents/ http://seriousaccidents.com/legal-advice/top-causes-of-car-accidents/fog/ http://tristanmac.tripod.com/id14.html http://books.google.ps/books?id=kE9wMh6DjlMCpg=PA94dq=how+roads+improve+car+safety+physicshl=ensa=Xei=XDlxU9eLEaLe7Aax2ICoDAved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=how%20roads%20improve%20car%20safety%20physicsf=false https://www.google.ps/search?q=how+seatbelts+workoq=seatbelts+workaqs=chrome.1.69i57j0l3.3914j0j4sourceid=chromeie=UTF-8 http://tristanmac.tripod.com/id8.html http://www.transport.wa.gov.au/mediaFiles/licensing/LBU_DL_B_AlcoholAndDriving.pdf

Repressed Sexuality in Bram Stokers Dracula Essay -- Bram Stoker Dra

Repressed Sexuality in Bram Stoker's Dracula      Ã‚  Ã‚   Perhaps no work of literature has ever been composed without being a product of its era, mainly because the human being responsible for writing it develops their worldview within a particular era.   Thus, with Bram Stoker's Dracula, though we have a vampire myth novel filled with terror, horror, and evil, the story is a thinly veiled disguise of the repressed sexual mores of the Victorian era.   If we look to critical interpretation and commentary to win support for such a thesis, we find it aplenty "For erotic Dracula certainly is.   'Quasi-pornography' one critic labels it.   Another describes it as a 'kind of incestuous, necrophilious, oral-anal-sadistic all-in-wrestling matching'.   A sexual search of the novel unearths the following:   seduction, rape, necrophilia, pedophilia, incest, adultery, oral sex, group sex, menstruation, venereal disease, voyeurism" (Leatherdale   155-156).   While there are many other interpretations of the novel, such as th e vampire as a Satan figure who wishes to take away the mortality Christ won mankind, this analysis will explore how it reads as a story of repressed sexuality and the conflict it creates for the characters living in a repressed Victorian world. Christopher Craft, in his review of the novel, argues that the gender roles of males and females were extremely well-defined and limiting in Victorian society.   The male was perceived as the stronger of the sexes, and women were relegated to a voiceless and submissive role.   He argues that Harker's eager anticipation of the incestuous vampire daughters is a direct parallel of the roles of men and women in Victorian society, but the roles are reversed "Harker awaits an erotic fulfillment ... ... novel allows an outlet for natural, human biological necessities, no doubt many Victorian readers were similarly thrilled and repulsed by its deliberate depiction of them. WORKS   CITED Auerbach, N. A. and Skal, D. J.   Bram Stoker:   Dracula:   Authoritative Text, Contexts, Reviews and Reactions, Dramatic and Film Variations, Criticism.   New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. Carter, M. L. (ed.).   Dracula:   The Vampire and the Critics.   Ann Arbor, U.M.I. Research Press, 1988.   Darling, L.   Dracula is us:   the vampire always sinks his fangs into our deepest fears.   Newsday.   Nov. 8, 1992, (07) 1-5. Leatherdale, C.   Dracula:   The Novel and the Legend:   A Study of Bram Stoker's Gothic Masterpiece.   Brighton, Desert Island Books, 1993. Taylor, S. B.   Stoker's Dracula.   The Explicator.   Vol. 55.   Sept. 1, 1996, (29-31) 1-3.  

Mercury Athletic Footwear: Valuing the Opportunity Essay

Team 10 / Mergers and Acquisitions West Coast Fashions, Inc (WCF) was a large business, which dealt with men’s and women’s apparel. One of their segments was Mercury Athletic Footwear. WCF wanted to dispose off this segment. They just wanted to divest because they wanted to focus more on their core business and move it up to the elite class. John Liedtke was the Business Development Head at that time in Active Gear Inc. He had a clear idea that acquiring Mercury will shoot up AGI’s revenues for sure. It would also ensure an expansion of the key business. In order to get a clearer picture on the acquisition, he needed to compare and analyze the company’s financials well. By this he could gauge the pros and cons of this acquisition. Are the strategic reasons behind the Merger good enough? Explain As a team, we had different views on this question. Some reasons make us think that it may be beneficial for AGI to grab the opportunity but some make us think that it might not be as promising as it seems. Let us see why we feel it is a good idea for AGI to acquire Mercury. Active Gear Inc. Mercury Athletic Footwear Revenue $470,285mn $431,121mn % Revenue Product wise 42% Athletic 58% Casual 79% Athletic 21% Casual Operating Income $60.4mn $42,299mn Revenue growth 2% to 6% 12.5% Active Gear was one of the most successful firms in terms of profitability, in the footwear industry. Mercury looked like a good opportunity for an  attractive investment because they almost have the same revenues, while being smaller in size, in the market. The Percent revenue in the casual footwear in AGI compensates for the gap in Mercury. It’s a perfect balance. When we looked at the industrial average of revenue growth is 10% and AGI is below the standard, however Mercury is above by 2.55%. It is a good sign to move ahead for this acquisition, as it will enable AGI to remain at the top in the market. Both companies are in the same industry and have same products. Both Mercury and AGI does its manufacturing in China. AGI sourced its resources to the contract manufacturers in China. Mercury can leverage with these manufacturers as China just experienced a wave of consolidation favorable for these kinds of manufacturers. This, in turn, can enable AGI to have the opportunity to expand with its top retailers and distributors. Mercury’s cost of manufacturing is low and could help to sync the lower profit margins of AGI, which it had been facing from its suppliers, distributors and consumers. (Refer Case Page 5 and 3). Mercury had always been an autonomous body, which maintained its own financials, data management, resource management and distribution. This would pave a smooth way for AGI to take over. This smoothness could not have been expected had Mercury been totally under WCF. Now let us look at why some of the members of the team thought that the acquisition is not an appropriate decision: There would be strategic clashes because AGI focuses on Classic and elite products with long life, on the other hand, Mercury focused on flexibility and changed its pr oducts based on demand and trend. (Refer Case study Page 2 and 4). There is a huge difference in days Inventory between the two companies. It means that there must be a strategy of keeping their products on shelf. We also come to know that Liedtke believed that Mercury can adopt the Inventory Management of AGI and a bit incremental cost and then it might reduce the levels of DSI of Mercury. Mercury also concentrated on a different geographic section than AGI. We also think that this Acquisition might just entail a complete take-over of the Women’s line of Mercury. However, it might me a loss making business for AGI later (Refer case study Page 6). Review the projections by Liedtke. Are they appropriate? How would you recommend modifying them? We put the Exhibit 7 for reference: As a team we analyzed each segment’s projection: Men’s Athletic This segment indicated a 8,72% average growth rate from 2007-2011. According to the information in the case, Men’s Athletic revenue grew more 40% over the prior year and the average compound rate from 2004-2006 was of 29%, therefore the forecasted item should be based on this assumption from the case of CAGR of 29%. This projection seems conservative and it can be modified towards the expected 29% growth. Men’s Casual Women’s Athletic This segmented shows a growth rate of 2,50% from 2007-2011. According to the information provided in the case, the sales of this business line should be declining at 6,25% per year not increasing. Therefore its sales should decrease in this percentage not increase as projected per Liedtke. Liedtke projected for this business segment, an average growth rate 7,98% (2007-2001). The case indicates a growth from 2004-2005 of 13,5% per year . Therefore this can be somewhat a conservative growth projection. Since this has been solid growth, this could be increased to maintain the 13, 5% sales growth in the upcoming years Women’s Casual Lietdke’s projection assumed that this business line was going to disappear by the end of 2007 this is aligned with was its expected from Mercury management according to the facts stated in the case (page 6). Given this information we can conclude that the Women’s Casual as part of Mercury revenue generator would disappear, therefore this projection seems reasonable if Mercury does not merge. If merger happens this business line can be enhance by the synergies of both companies and it might be a positive approach to keep the brand alive. Estimated Capital Expenditures This projected expenditure was based on 5, 67% average growth rate from 2007 until 2011. The information in the case indicates that Mercury’s capital spending its little since they focus its resources in market research and product designs. Estimated Depreciation This item maintains an average growth rate of 5,67% for the years of 2007-2011. Because there is no more evidence of changes in depreciation this seems reasonable for Mercury’s operations. Cash Used in Operations From the Historical balance of exhibit 4, in 2006 Cash & Equivalents closed with a balance of $10,676. Liedtke projected a 61% decline for 2007 reducing the Cash line item to $4,161. This reduction might be since the historical Balance Sheet (2004-2006) was taking into account Cash & Cash Equivalents â€Å"† where the projected Balance Sheet (2007-2011) it’s only taking into account â€Å"Cash used in operations†. In addition, it might also be affected by the fact of â€Å"Men’s casual footwear† and â€Å"Women’s Casual Footwear† revenue are declining and not generating enough sales. Accounts Receivable The accounts receivable of Mercury, maintained flat growth with a 6% average growth rate from 2006-2011. Probably they have credit terms with retailers and shops, although there is not enough information in the case about this, therefore it seems an appropriate projection. Inventory According to Liedtke projections inventory also maintain an average growth of 6% until 2011. An inventory increase it’s necessary for this type of business, since Mercury needs to supply large retailers with their Footwear. In addition, this increase might be justified with the fact that, Mercury its receiving pressure from suppliers in China who need larger orders to operate at full capacity, therefore Mercury might be forced to make larger orders in the future to maintain its current relationship with the Asian suppliers. However, if Mercury it’s considering Women’s Casual as dead brand this can make the growth to be somewhat conservative. Prepaid Expenses According to Liedtke’s projection these expenses increased from$ 10,172 to  $14,747 in 2007 represented 42% increased. After 2007 Liedtke’s projected an average growth rate of 6% will maintain an average growth rate. Prepaid expenses might be rent of related to their operations however there is not enough information to assume that prepaid expenses can change aggressively over the projected years. Property Plant and Equipments This line item seems to maintain a flat and conservative growth since there is no indications of major changes in this area in the future of Mercury fixed assets. Trademarks &Other Intangibles The amount in trademarks and other intangible should not change since the company already owns the brands of the different segment. If in the future the merger happens then this might decrease Accounts Payable This was projected with a 5% average growth rate per year since 2007. For this type of business model seems reasonable that mercury maintains a conservative growth rate for the future years. The company already has established relationship with retailers and probably their credit terms will remain the same for the upcoming years. Accrued Expenses Accrued expenses which might be related to workers’ wages, increased from 16,981 to 22,778 in 2007 (21% increase). This increase seems somewhat aggressive since the company it’s probably expects to have less staff from the business lines, which are declining. Deferred Taxes Taxes might not suffer any changes, since this the taxes the company will have to pay for the upcoming years. Pension Obligation Projections of pensions seems reasonable and with no changes for upcoming  years. Nevertheless, if we assume that organizational changes will occur in the future such as lay-offs this line could be reduced. Value the target company, first by the DCF approach, and second, by multiples, using Liedtke’s baseline case. Explain all the assumptions that you make in this process We look at the valuation done by Joel L. Heilprin for Mercury when the WACC is 11.06% and the long run growth rate is projected at 2.78%: However, our DCF uses a WACC of 8.73% and a long-term growth rate of 3%. We do understand that there is a significant difference from Heilprin’s calculations; however, it is to reflect upon the probable different values of the treasury securities that we chose. Here is our DCF, but please refer to the excel file (attached through â€Å"Turn it In’) for all the formulas and values we used to give us an idea and to help us reach the solution. In one of our calculations we took Termination Value in 2007 based on the M&A. And in the other one, we took the Termination Value from 2011 because the FCF is growing slowly. (Please refer to the calculations in the Excel) Do you regard the value you obtained as conservative or aggressive? Why? Three calculations give different results because we took assumptions. The DCF method based on case assumption gives higher value than the P/E method. Based on the calculation we get two different market value of the company. The evident one is $236,988. This approach can be considered as aggressive. Moreover the target company has the steady financial statement with a low debt proportion, while the bidder has higher debt in portfolio. We combine the company by â€Å"Pooling Interest† method. This situation considers that the bidder, which tries to target the company with higher price, is considered to be aggressive. From our Lower WACC calculations we drop the Cost of Capital, which can inversely raise the enterprise value. With our high enterprise value we have a higher proposal value to the buyer, higher than Heilprin’s. What kind of synergies or other sources of value not included in Lietdke’s projections? How would you take them into account? The additional opportunities that the company has to improve the results are: Maintain line of Women casual revenues. AGI has the opportunity to add this line of products. AGI can use the infrastructure of Mercury without new investments. Additionally, AGI could change the Women casual brand of Mercury to their own brand, so changing the products style to the concept of lifestyle for women. The company could consider as minimum an EBIT of $0.5M similar to the 2004. Improvement in DSI, DSO, DPO. Mercury has fewer DSI, more DSO, and more DPO. If we analyze the next table, we can consider that AGI have the opportunity to match the DSI of Mercury with the ones of AGI. Additionally, the company has the opportunity of increase the PDO of Mercury with AGI, negotiating days of payment with the providers in China. These opportunities improve the Working capital in $17M for AP, and $22M for inventory. The total improvement for WC is $39M. Increase volume for their providers. AGI reduced the number of providers to allow them achieve more scale and put AGI in a better negotiating position. In that way, AGI could benefit from the bigger scale and continuing consolidation of their providers. Notice that the Gross margin of Mercury is 44%, while it is 50% for AGI. Therefore, with better negotiations for the Mercury products there is an opportunity for reducing COGS in $25M. Elimination of duplicated costs in China. Eliminate the surplus of people the company have in China. AGI manage their providers in China with 85 employees, and Mercury manages 73 professional. The merged company can eliminate at least the 73 professionals of Mercury. The value of 73 employees is $1.7M per year (assuming an average monthly payroll and related of $20k per employee).

Leaders are made not born Essay

Good morning honorable judges, fellow debaters and audience My name is †¦.. and I am here with my team members †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. to address the issue â€Å"are leaders born or made and we are in favor of leaders are made. We will discuss eight points to support our argument. There’s a common misconception that some people are born as natural leaders and others simply don’t have it. Although it’s true that people are born with different talents, different abilities and different potential, it’s also true that we as human beings are incredibly versatile. There are skills and lessons that we all can learn to continue growing and developing both as leaders and as people That’s because leadership is an apprentice trade. Leaders learn about 80 percent of their craft on the job. They learn from watching other leaders. And choose role models. Leaders improve by getting feedback and using it. The best leaders seek feedback from their boss, their peers and their subordinates. Then they modify their behavior so that they get better results. They learn from trial and error and from experience so when something fails, a true leader learns from experience and puts it behind him. The only failure they recognize is the failure to learn from experience. If leaders are made then why we have business schools and universities, and why we study business degrees? Through different process of learning, we learn to take decision, control the situation sensibly, being responsible Rajiv Gandhi of India was made leader who was a pilot ; did not like politics. Even during 1989 elections, he said publicly that he was zero in politics.

The 9 Literary Elements Youll Find In Every Story

The 9 Literary Elements You'll Find In Every Story SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The AP Literature exam is designed to test your ability to analyze literature. That means you’ll have to know how to use analytical tools, like literary elements, to uncover the meaning of a text. Because literary elements are present in every piece of literature (really!), they’re a good place to start when it comes to developing your analytical toolbox. In this article, we’ll give you the literary element definition, explain how a literary element is different from a literary device, and look at the top nine literary elements you need to know before taking the AP Literature exam. So let’s get started! WhatAre Literary Elements? Take a minute and imagine building a house. (Stick with us, here.) What are some of the things that you would absolutely have to include in order to make a house? Some of those non-negotiable elements are a roof, walls, a kitchen, and a bathroom. If you didn’t have these elements, you wouldn’t have a house. Heck, you might not even have a building! A literary element’s definition is pretty similar. Literary elements are the things that all literature- whether it’s a news article, a book, or a poem- absolutely have to have. Just like a house, the elements might be arranged slightly differently...but at the end of the day, they’re usually all present and accounted for. Literary elements are the fundamental building blocks of writing, and they play an important role in helping us write, read, and understand literature. You might even say that literary elements are the DNA of literature. How Is a Literary Element Different From a Literary Device? But wait! You’ve also learned about literary device (sometimes called literary techniques), which writers use to create literature! So what makes a literary element different from a literary device? Let’s go back to our house metaphor for a second. If literary elements are the must-have, cannot-do-without parts of a house, then literary elements are the optional decor. Maybe you like a classic style (a trope!), or perhaps you’re more of an eclectic kind of person (a conceit)! Just because you decorate your house like a crazy person doesn’t make it any less of a house. It just means you have a...unique personal style. Literary devices are optional techniques that writers pick and choose from to shape the style, genre, tone, meaning, and theme of their works. For example, literary devices are what make Cormac McCarthy’s western novel, Blood Meridian, so different from Matt McCarthy’s medical memoir, The Real Doctor Will See You Shortly. Conversely, literary elements- especially the elements that qualify both works as â€Å"books†- are what keep them shelved next to each other at Barnes Noble. They’re the non-negotiable things that make both works â€Å"literature.† Top 9 Literary Elements List (With Examples!) Now let’s take a more in-depth look at the most common elements in literature. Each term in the literary elements list below gives you the literary element definition and an example of how the elements work. #1: Language The most important literary element is language. Language is defined as a system of communicating ideas and feelings through signs, sounds, gestures, and/or marks. Language is the way we share ideas with one another, whether it’s through speech, text, or even performance! All literature is written in a recognizable language, since one of literature’s main goals is sharing ideas, concepts, and stories with a larger audience. And since there are over 6,900 distinct languages in the world, that means literature exists in tons of different linguistic forms, too. (How cool is that?!) Obviously, in order to read a book, you need to understand the language it’s written in. But language can also be an important tool in understanding the meaning of a book, too. For instance, writers can combine languages to help readers better understand the characters, setting, or even tone. Here’s an example of how Cherrie Moraga combines English and Spanish in her play, Heroes and Saints: Look into your children’s faces. They tell you the truth. They are our future. Pero no tendremos ningà ºn futuro si seguimos siendo và ­ctimas. Moraga’s play is about the plight of Hispanic migrant workers in the United States. By combining English and Spanish throughout the play, Moraga helps readers understand her characters and their culture better. #2: Plot The plot of a work is defined as the sequence of events that occurs from the first line to the last. In other words, the plot is what happens in a story. All literature has a plot of some kind. Most long-form literature, like a novel or a play, follows a pretty typical plot structure, also known as a plot arc. This type of plot has six elements: Beginning/Exposition: This is the very beginning of a story. During the exposition, authors usually introduce the major characters and settings to the reader. Conflict: Just like in real life, the conflict of a story is the problem that the main characters have to tackle. There are two types of conflict that you’ll see in a plot. The major conflict is the overarching problem that characters face. Minor conflicts, on the other hands, are the smaller obstacles characters have to overcome to resolve the major conflict. Rising Action: Rising action is literally everything that happens in a story that leads up to the climax of the plot. Usually this involves facing and conquering minor conflicts, which is what keeps the plot moving forward. More importantly, writers use rising action to build tension that comes to a head during the plot’s climax. Climax: The climax of the plot is the part of the story where the characters finally have to face and solve the major conflict. This is the â€Å"peak† of the plot where all the tension of the rising action finally comes to a head. You can usually identify the climax by figuring out which part of the story is the moment where the hero will either succeed or totally fail. Falling Action: Falling action is everything that happens after the book’s climax but before the resolution. This is where writers tie up any loose ends and start bringing the book’s action to a close. Resolution/Denouement: This is the conclusion of a story. But just because it’s called a â€Å"resolution† doesn’t mean every single issue is resolved happily- or even satisfactorily. For example, the resolution in Romeo and Juliet involves (spoiler alert!) the death of both main characters. This might not be the kind of ending you want, but it is an ending, which is why it’s called the resolution! If you’ve ever read a Shakespearean play, then you’ve seen the plot we outlined above at work. But even more contemporary novels, like The Hunger Games, also use this structure. Actually, you can think of a plot arc like a story’s skeleton! But what about poems, you ask? Do they have plots? Yes! They tend to be a little less dense, but even poems have things that happen in them. Take a look at â€Å"Do not go gentle into that good night† by Dylan Thomas. There’s definitely stuff happening in this poem: specifically, the narrator is telling readers not to accept death without a fight. While this is more simple than what happens in something like The Lord of the Rings, it’s still a plot! #3: Mood The mood of a piece of literature is defined as the emotion or feeling that readers get from reading the words on a page. So if you’ve ever read something that’s made you feel tense, scared, or even happy...you’ve experienced mood firsthand! While a story can have an overarching mood, it’s more likely that the mood changes from scene to scene depending on what the writer is trying to convey. For example, the overall mood of a play like Romeo and Juliet may be tragic, but that doesn’t mean there aren’t funny, lighthearted moments in certain scenes. Thinking about mood when you read literature is a great way to figure out how an author wants readers to feel about certain ideas, messages, and themes. These lines from â€Å"Still I Rise† by Maya Angelou are a good example of how mood impacts an idea: You may shoot me with your words, You may cut me with your eyes,You may kill me with your hatefulness,But still, like air, I'll rise. What are the emotions present in this passage? The first three lines are full of anger, bitterness, and violence, which helps readers understand that the speaker of the poem has been terribly mistreated. But despite that, the last line is full of hope. This helps Angelou show readers how she won’t let others’ actions- even terrible ones- hold her back. Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry from the Harry Potter book series #4: Setting Have you ever pictured yourself in living in the Gryffindor dormitories at Hogwarts? Or maybe you’ve wished you could attend the Mad Hatter’s tea party in Wonderland. These are examples of how settings- especially vivid ones- capture readers’ imaginations and help a literary world come to life. Setting is defined simply as the time and location in which the story takes place. The setting is also the background against which the action happens. For example, Hogwarts becomes the location, or setting, where Harry, Hermione, and Ron have many of their adventures. Keep in mind that longer works often have multiple settings. The Harry Potter series, for example, has tons of memorable locations, like Hogsmeade, Diagon Alley, and Gringotts. Each of these settings plays an important role in bringing the Wizarding World to life. The setting of a work is important because it helps convey important information about the world that impact other literary elements, like plot and theme. For example, a historical book set in America in the 1940s will likely have a much different atmosphere and plot than a science fiction book set three hundred years in the future. Additionally, some settings even become characters in the stories themselves! For example, the house in Edgar Allen Poe’s short story, â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher,† becomes the story’s antagonist. So keep an eye out for settings that serve multiple functions in a work, too. #5: Theme All literary works have themes, or central messages, that authors are trying to convey. Sometimes theme is described as the main idea of a work...but more accurately, themes are any ideas that appear repeatedly throughout a text. That means that most works have multiple themes! All literature has themes because a major purpose of literature is to share, explore, and advocate for ideas. Even the shortest poems have themes. Check out this two line poem, â€Å"My life has been the poem I would have writ,† from Henry David Thoreau: My life has been the poem I would have writ But I could not both live and utter it. When looking for a theme, ask yourself what an author is trying to teach us or show us through their writing. In this case, Thoreau is saying we have to live in the moment, and living is what provides the material for writing. #6: Point of View Point of view is the position of the narrator in relationship to the plot of a piece of literature. In other words, point of view is the perspective from which the story is told. We actually have a super in-depth guide to point of view that you can find here. But here’s the short version: literature can be written from one of four points of view. First person: This is told by one of the characters of the story from their perspective. You can easily identify first-person points of view by looking for first-person pronouns, like â€Å"I,† â€Å"you,† and â€Å"my.† Second person: second-person point of view happens when the audience is made a character in the story. In this instance, the narrator uses second person pronouns, like â€Å"you† and â€Å"your.† If you ever get confused, just remember that â€Å"Choose Your Own Adventure† books use second person. Third person limited: this is when the narrator is removed from the story and tells it from an outside perspective. To do this, the narrator uses pronouns like â€Å"he,† â€Å"she,† and â€Å"they† to refer to the characters in the story. In a third person limited point of view, this narrator focuses on the story as it surrounds one character. It’s almost like there’s a camera crew following the protagonist that reports on everything that happens to them. Third person omniscient: in this point of view, the narrator still uses third-person pronouns...but instead of being limited to one character, the narrator can tell readers what’s happening with all characters at all times. It’s almost like the narrator is God: they can see all, hear all, and explain all! Point of view is an important literary element for two reasons. First, it helps us better understand the characters in a story. For example, a first person point of view lets readers get to know the main character in detail, since they experience the main character’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. Second, point of view establishes a narrator, or a character whose job it is to tell the story, which we’ll talk about in the next section! #7: Narrator Like we just mentioned, the narrator is the person who’s telling the story. All literature has a narrator, even if that narrator isn’t named or an active part of the plot. Here’s what we mean: when you read a newspaper article, it’s the reporter’s job to tell you all the details of a particular event. That makes the reporter the narrator. They’re taking a combination of interviews, research, and their own eyewitness account to help you better understand a topic. The same is true for the narrator of a book or poem, too. The narrator helps make sense of the plot for the reader. It’s their job to explain, describe, and even dramatically reveal plot points to the audience. Here’s an example of how one of the most famous narrators in literature, John Watson, explains Sherlock Holmes’ character to readers in A Study in Scarlet: He was not studying medicine. He had himself, in reply to a question, confirmed Stamford’s opinion upon that point. Neither did he appear to have pursued any course of reading which might fit him for a degree in science or any other recognized portal which would give him an entrance into the learned world. Yet his zeal for certain studies was remarkable, and within eccentric limits his knowledge was so extraordinarily ample and minute that his observations have fairly astounded me. Surely no man would work so hard or attain such precise information unless he had some definite end in view. Desultory readers are seldom remarkable for the exactness of their learning. No man burdens his mind with small matters unless he has some very good reason for doing so. John Watson tells the story from a first person perspective (though that’s not evident in this quote). That means he’s giving readers his own perspective on the world around him, which includes Sherlock Holmes. In this passage, readers learn about Holmes’ peculiar learning habits, which is just another part of his extraordinary nature. Grant Snider/Incidental Comics #8: Conflict Because conflict is a part of plot- and as we’ve already established, all literature has some sort of plot- that means conflict is a literary element, too. A conflict is the central struggle that motivates the characters and leads to a work’s climax. Generally, conflict occurs between the protagonist, or hero, and the antagonist, or villain...but it can also exist between secondary characters, man and nature, social structures, or even between the hero and his own mind. More importantly, conflict gives a story purpose and motivates a story’s plot. Put another way, conflict causes the protagonist to act. Sometimes these conflicts are large in scale, like a war...but they can also be small, like conflict in a relationship between the hero and their parents. One of the most important things to understand about conflict is it can be both explicit and implicit. Explicit conflict is explained within the text; it’s an obvious moment where something goes wrong and characters have to fix it. Bram Stoker’s Dracula uses explicit conflict to fuel its plot: a vampire has come to England, and the heroes in the story have to kill him as soon as possible. Implicit conflict is more common in poetry, where there isn’t a specific occurrence that obviously screams, â€Å"this is a problem.† Instead, you have to read between the lines to find the conflict that’s motivating the narrator. Take a look at Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s â€Å"How Do I Love Thee?† for an example of implicit conflict in action: How do I love thee? Let me count the ways. I love thee to the depth and breadth and heightMy soul can reach, when feeling out of sightFor the ends of being and ideal grace.I love thee to the level of every day’sMost quiet need, by sun and candle-light.I love thee freely, as men strive for right.I love thee purely, as they turn from praise.I love thee with the passion put to useIn my old griefs, and with my childhood’s faith.I love thee with a love I seemed to loseWith my lost saints. I love thee with the breath,Smiles, tears, of all my life; and, if God choose,I shall but love thee better after death. The conflict here is actually a happy one: the narrator is so in love that she’s struggling with expressing the depth of her emotion! Cyanide and Happiness/Explosm.net #9: Characters A piece of literature has to have at least one character, which can be a person, an object, or an animal. While there are many different character types (and archetypes!), we’re going to talk about the two you absolutely need to know: the protagonist and the antagonist. The protagonist of a work is its main character. The plot circles around this person or object, and they are central to solving the conflict of the story. Protagonists are often heroic, but they don’t have to be: many stories focus on the struggles of average people, too. For the most part, protagonists are the characters that you remember long after the book is over, like Katniss Everdeen, David Copperfield, Sherlock Holmes, and Hester Prynne. Antagonists, on the other hand, are the characters that oppose the protagonist in some way. (This opposition is what causes the conflict of the story!) There can be multiple antagonists in a story, though usually there’s one major character, animal, or object that continues to impede the protagonist’s progress. If you ever forget what an antagonist is, just think of your favorite Disney villains. They’re some of the best bad guys out there! What's Next? If you’re not taking AP practice tests, there’s no way to know how you’ll do when you’re taking the exam for real. Here’s a list of practice tests for every AP exam, including the AP literature exam. It might seem like extra work, but we promise- practice tests are one of the best ways to help you improve your score! Listen: we know you’re busy, so it can be hard to schedule time to study for an AP test on top of your extracurriculars and normal class work. Check out this article on when you need to start studying for your AP tests to make sure you’re staying on track. What does a good AP score look like, anyway? Here’s a list of the average AP scores for every single AP test. This is great for seeing how your practice scores stack up against the national average.